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+====== Commonthroat ======
+Commonthroat is the most widely spoken language among yinrih. Because yinrih do not use their teeth, tongue, or lips when speaking, they refer to languages as throats rather than tongues. The yinrih are not united as a species, and Focus, their home star system, is home to several political powers that speak different languages. Commonthroat is the official language of the Allied Worlds, a political union of most of the inner planets that currently enjoys a degree of cultural and economic hegemony. The language is an international lingua franca filling a similar niche as English does on Earth, giving rise to the name Commonthroat for the language.
+===== History =====
+Old Commonthroat was spoken in the area around Newman's Dale, the urheimat of the yinrih species, at the end of the Age of Decadence. Since the Bright Way was headquartered there at the time, the language was used as a de facto standard among the clergy. after the War of Dissolution ended the Bright Way's reign as a system-spanning for-profit megacorp and restored its religious character, Old Commonthroat was adopted by the re-emerging secular government of Yih.
+When the Partisans threatened to conquer the entire system, Yih and the other inner planets, save Hearthside, formed a defensive alliance in order to maintain the independence they had just clawed back from the clergy. Over time, this union grew more culturally and economically integrated. Other languages on Yih, Newhome, and Welkinstead, as well as among Sweetwater's benthic cities, were displaced by the more prestegious Commonthroat. This left Focus with only three languages with state recognition and reasonably sized communities of speakers at the time of First Contact. Hearthside retains a unique language, and Outlander is the official language of both Moonlitter and Partisan Territory. Tiny isolated communities on the surface of Sweetwater and in the Spacer Confederacy still retain their own languages, including quite a few that were devised by founding groups of Atavists.
+At the time of First Contact, Commonthroat has attained a status similar to English on Earth--a de facto international language used in business, diplomacy, and international communication. Most pups on Hearthside and Moonlitter grow up with at least a passive understanding of the language thanks to exposure to Allied Worlds media, though Partisan Teritory's aggressive cultural controls mean that most citizens there only speak Outlander.
+===== Sounds =====
+The set of all the sounds that are valid in a language is called its phoneme inventory. A language may have a particular sound that another language lacks. English is well known for lacking the guttural ch sound like in German Buch. On the other hand, the th sound in think is absent in German. Some languages, such as Japanese and Hawaiian, have very small inventories. Others, like English, have much larger inventories.
+To a human, yinrih speech sounds like the quiet yipping and growling made by a dreaming dog. The range of sounds that a yinrih can produce is very limited compared to a human’s vocal repertoire. All yinrih languages rely heavily on changes in pitch and volume, as well as the subtle timing of these changes, to encode meaning. As such, words cannot be sung since the melody and rhythm would completely obscure the meaning.
+==== Vowels ====
+Vowels carry most of the weight. There are three vowel qualities, or phonations: a whine, a growl, and a grunt. These vowels can either be plain (monophthongs) or contoured (diphthongs). A plain vowel can have one of two lengths (short or long), one of two tones (low or high) and one of two volumes, or strengths as they are called here (weak or strong).
+A contour consists of two plain vowels which serve as the endpoints of a gradient. The attributes of each plain vowel determine the shape of the gradient. There are two rules that govern what vowels can form contours. First, two plain vowels that differ only in length cannot form a contour. Second, the two vowels must have the same phonation type. If either of these two rules are broken, a hiatus occurs between the vowels and they form two syllables, like the English word Naive.
+The following table shows the notation used for vowels.
+^  ^  ^Weak ^ ^Strong^ ^
+^  ^  ^Short^Long^Short^Long^
+^Whines^Low|b|B|c|C|
+^:::   ^High|d|D|f|F|
+^Growls^Low|g|G|h|H|
+^:::   ^High|j|J|k|K|
+^Grunts^Low|l|L|m|M|
+^:::   ^High|n|N|p|P|
+Since humans can’t utter Commonthroat without using a speech synthesizer, the best way to convey how a vowel is pronounced is to describe its phonetic features one by one. For plain vowels, this is simple enough: give its length, tone, strength, then phonation. b is a short, low, weak whine. P is a long, high, strong grunt.
+Describing contours gets a little trickier. If both of the vowels in a contour share a phonetic feature, we use the same description we would for a plain vowel with that feature. If both vowels are long, then the contour is simply described as long. If both vowels are high, the contour as a whole is high, and so on. If there is a gradient between the two vowels, we describe it as follows:
+  * A vowel that goes from low to high tone is called rising.
+  * A vowel that goes from high to low tone is called falling.
+  * A vowel that goes from weak strength to strong is called strengthening (increasing volume).
+  * A vowel that goes from strong to weak is called weakening. (decreasing volume).
+But what about length? If the first vowel is short and the second is long, then the change from one vowel to the other occurs earlier in the syllable, so we call these contours early. If the first vowel is long and the second is short, the change occurs later in the syllable, so these contours are called late.
+For a complete list of plain vowels and contours along with their phonetic features, see the Vowel Pronunciation Table in the appendix.
+==== Consonants ====
+Consonants are simple compared to vowels. There are only three: a huff, a chuff, and a yip. A huff is an exhalation through the nose. A chuff sounds somewhat like a short purr, or the prusten sound made by tigers and snow leopards. Yinrih chuff as a form of greeting, like a human smile. A yip is a quiet little bark.
+Here are the consonant letters.
+^Sound^Letter^
+|Huff|q|
+|Chuff|r|
+|Yip|s|
+A language’s phonotactics are the rules that govern where sounds can appear in a word. In English, for example, the ng in words like king and sing cannot occur at the beginning of a word, and the h in hat or hello cannot occur at the end of a word.
+In Commonthroat, a syllable can start with a huff, chuff, yip, or it can have no initial consonant. A syllable may end with a huff, a chuff, or no consonant. A yip may not occur at the end of a syllable.
+When pronunciations of words are given in this text, they will be set off by forward slashes, and the pronunciations of individual consonants and vowels will be separated by commas like this: CDr /long rising weakening whine, chuff/.
+===== Grammar =====
+Before discussing the grammar, we need to touch on interlinear glosses. A gloss is a word-by-word translation of a language sample. In this document, glosses contain three parts. The first part is a sample of Commonthroat. Prefixes and suffixes may be set off from the rest of their parent word by hyphens. The second part, directly below, is a word-by-word translation of the sample, with the English word left-aligned to its corresponding Commonthroat word above. Abbreviations of linguistic terms are written using capital letters. Simple glosses may not hyphenate prefixes or suffixes to make the example clearer.
+For definitions of many of the words used in these examples, see the glossary.
+=== Syntax ===
+The basic word order is subject-verb-object, like in English.
+  sfcp   lPr     HJqp
+  pup    climb   tree
+The pup climbed the tree.
+Adjectives follow the nouns they describe.
+  sfcp   rpM     lPr     HJqp   rbfq
+  pup    small   climb   tree   old
+The small pup climbed the old tree.
+Adjectives can also act like verbs.
+  sfcp   rpM
+  pup    small
+The pup is small.
+  HJqp   rbfq
+  tree   old
+The tree is old.
+Adverbs that modify an entire sentence can come before the subject.
+  spr         sfcp   lPr     HJqp
+  yesterday   pup    climb   tree
+The pup climbed the tree yesterday.
+Adverbs can also come right after the verb they describe.
+  sfcp   lPr     rpMr    HJqp
+  pup    climb   happy   tree
+The pup happily climbed the tree.
+Adjectives can act like adverbs simply by moving them to the beginning of the sentence.
+  sfcp   rNlr
+  pup    good
+The pup is good.
+  sfcp   rNlr   lPr     HJqp
+  pup    good   climb   tree
+The good pup climbed the tree.
+  rNlr   sfcp   lPr     HJqp
+  good   pup    climb   tree
+The pup climbed the tree well.
+Prepositional phrases can act like adverbs, modifying an entire sentence. In this case they are placed before the subject just like adverbs.
+  P    dqp      sfcp   lPr     HJqp
+  In   forest   pup    climb   tree
+In the forest, the pup climbed the tree.
+Prepositional phrases can also act as adjectives, modifying a noun, and are placed after the noun like an adjective.
+  sfcp lPr   HJqp bc qDCp
+  pup  climb tree on mountain
+On the mountain the pup climbed the tree.
+The word for not is rnL /chuff, early falling weak grunt/. It behaves like an adverb.
+  rnL   sfcp   lPr HJqp
+  not   pup    climb
+The pup did not climb the tree.
+=== Nouns ===
+Here’s where Commonthroat gets a little alien. Nouns change their ending depending on where the object the noun refers to is in space relative to the speaker. The technical term for this is deixis. English also indicates deixis, but it uses demonstratives like this and that. Demonstratives are optional in English, but not in Commonthroat.
+Let’s start with the ending I’ve been using on most of the nouns you’ve seen so far, -p /short high strong grunt/. It can roughly be translated as that…. So sfcp lPr HJqp is more precisely translated
+  sfc-p   lPr     HJq-p
+  pup-D   climb   tree-D
+That pup climbed that tree.
+The D in the gloss stands for distal which is the technical term for a demonstrative that indicates that something is far away from the speaker.
+But what if the tree and the pup were a little closer? We’d use a medial suffix -qN /huff, long high weak grunt/. Which is abbreviated M in glosses.
+  sfc-qN   lPr     HJq-qN
+  pup-M    climb   tree-M
+This pup climbed this tree.
+Normally, a medial suffix is used for something close to the listener but far from the speaker. If we wanted to say that all this was happening right next to the speaker, we’d use a proximal suffix, -Mr /long low strong grunt, chuff/, abbreviated P in glosses.
+  sfc-Mr   lPr     HJq-Mr
+  pup-P    climb   tree-P
+This pup climbed this tree.
+So far, so good, right? But what if we didn’t know or didn’t care where this stuff was happening? Commonthroat uses an indefinite suffix for that: -g /short low weak growl/. It’s abbreviated as I in glosses.
+  sfc-g   lPr     HJq-g
+  pup-I   climb   tree-I
+A pup climbed a tree.
+The indefinite form of a noun is the base form seen in dictionaries. It’s used when the precise nature of the object the noun refers to is not known, not important, or when the word refers to a general class of objects rather than a specific object. This example could also be translated as Pups climb trees. This usage, where a noun refers to a general class of objects, is referred to as gnomic.
+Note that Modern English only distinguishes between two levels of demonstratives, proximal this and distal that. Older forms of English had a three-way distinction among proximal this, medial that, and distal yonder.
+There’s also no reason why the pup and the tree in these examples must share the same deictic suffix. You could say
+  sfc-Mr   lPr     HJq-g
+  pup-P    climb   tree-I
+This pup climbs trees.
+  sfc-qN   lPr     HJq-p
+  pup-M    climb   tree-D
+That pup climbed yonder tree.
+To summarize, let’s look at a noun with each of the suffixes we’ve discussed so far. We’ll look at the word sFsFg /yip, long high strong whine, yip, long high strong whine, short low weak growl/ which means friend.
+  Noun     Meaning
+  sFsFg    a friend
+  sFsFMr   this friend
+  sFsFqN   that friend
+  sFsFp    yonder friend
+Expressing Quantity
+Nouns do not indicate number on their own. HJqp can mean the tree or those trees depending on context. The base form of the noun is referred to as the general number. If you want to specify how many of something there are, one way is to use a numeral or other quantifying word. Unlike normal adjectives, words that indicate quantity come before the noun they describe.
+  rdr   sfc-p   lPr     HJq-p
+  one   pup-D   climb   tree-D
+One pup climbed the tree.
+  H      sfc-p   lPr     HJq-p
+  none   pup-D   climb   tree-D
+No pups climbed the tree.
+  rdr   sfc-p   lPr     BC    HJq-p
+  one   pup-D   climb   all   tree-D
+One pup climbed all those trees.
+There is also a plurative particle h /short low strong growl/ that indicates more than one thing, just like the English suffix -s.
+  h    sfc-p   lPr     HJq-p
+  PL   pup-D   climb   tree-D
+Those pups climbed the tree.
+Note that h is a particle, not an adjective. It cannot be used like a verb or a noun in the same way adjectives can. Traditionally, the plurative particle is only used if there is no other quantifying adjective associated with the noun. However, younger speakers are increasingly using it in front of nouns that are already explicitly marked.
+  qBf   sfc-p   lPr     HJq-p
+  two   pup-D   climb   tree-D
+Two pups climbed the tree. (Standard)
+  h    qBf   sfc-p   lPr     HJq-p
+  PL   two   pup-D   climb   tree-D
+Two pups climbed the tree. (Younger speakers)
+== Personal Deixis ==
+If Commonthroat only used those demonstrative suffixes, it wouldn’t be so alien, but it doesn’t stop there. Demonstratives are part of what’s called spatial deixis, which relates to where an object is relative to the speaker. There’s also personal deixis, which covers how the speaker identifies himself, how he identifies the listener, and how things that are neither the speaker nor the listener is identified. In English, we use personal pronouns like me when referring to yourself, you when referring to the listener, and he, she, or it when referring to someone or something that is neither the speaker nor the listener. You may recognize that I’m talking about first person, second person, and third person.
+All the noun endings I’ve introduced are in the third person. From now on, the glosses of third person suffixes will include a 3 as a reminder. Any noun can also be inflected in the first or second person if the noun refers to the speaker or listener. So, if the speaker were the pup in the above examples, he’d say
+  sfc-l   lPr     HJq-g
+  pup-1   climb   tree-3I
+I, a pup, climbed a tree.
+If the speaker wanted to indicate that the listener was the pup, he’d say
+  sfc-qn   lPr     HJq-g
+  pup-2    climb   tree-3I
+You, the pup, climbed a tree.
+But it gets weirder. It’s perfectly grammatical for the speaker to indicate that they or the listener are the tree. When a noun that is clearly not a person is given a first- or second-person suffix, it is understood to be metaphorical.
+  sfc-g    lPr     HJq-qn
+  pup-3I   climb   tree-2
+A pup climbed you as though you were a tree.
+== Interrogative Nouns ==
+There’s one last noun ending we need to cover. If you don’t know which pup climbed the tree, or which tree the pup climbed, and want the listener to identify the tree or the pup, you’d use the interrogative ending -BD /long rising weak whine/, which is abbreviated INT in glosses
+  sfc-p    lPr     HJq-BD
+  pup-3D   climb   tree-INT
+What tree did that pup climb?
+  sfc-BD    lPr     HJq-g
+  pup-INT   climb   tree-3I
+Which pup climbed a tree? What pup climbs trees?
+== Deictic Suffixes ==
+That’s all the forms a noun can have. Here’s a table of all thelsuffixes along with their gloss abbreviations.
+^Deixis^Suffix^Gloss^
+|1st|-l|1|
+|2nd|-qn|2|
+|3rd|indefinate|-g|3I|
+|::: |proximal|-Mr|3P|
+|::: |medial|-qN|3M|
+|::: |distal|-p|3D|
+|::: |Interrogative||-BD|INT|
+And here’s sFsFg friend again in all its forms.
+^Deixis^Inflection^Translation^
+|1st|sFsFl|I, the friend|
+|2nd|sFsFqn|You, the friend|
+|3rd indefinate|sFsFg|a friend, some friend, friends in general|
+|3rd proximal|sFsFMr|This friend|
+|3rd medial|sFsFqN|that friend|
+|3rd distal|sFsFp|yonder friend|
+|Interrogative|sFsFBD|What friend?|
+== Possession ==
+There are two ways of indicating possession. One method uses the preposition b /short low weak whine/, translated as of in English, and it behaves identically as well.
+  sfc-g    b    dcr-p    lPr     HJq-p
+  pup-3I   of   dam-3D   climb   tree-3D
+One of the mother’s pups climbed the tree.
+The second method uses the possessive particle g /short low weak growl/, which comes before a noun. It shifts the meaning of the noun suffix. Instead of the suffix pointing to the noun itself, it now points to the possessor of the noun. A table best illustrates this.
+^Regular Noun^Meaning^Possessed Noun^Meaning^
+|sFsFl|I, the friend|g sFsFl|my friend|
+|sFsFqn|you, the friend|g sFsFqn|your friend|
+|sFsFg|a friend|g sFsFg|someone's friend|
+|sFsFMr|this friend|g sFsFMr|my friend|
+|sFsFqN|that friend|g sFsFqN|your friend|
+|sFsFp|yonder friend|g sFsFp|his/her/their friend|
+|sFsFBD|what friend?|g sFsFBD|whose friend?|
+  g     sfc-p    lPr     HJq-p
+  POS   pup-3D   climb   tree-3D
+Her pup climbed the tree.
+You may notice that there are two ways of saying my friend and your friend. The difference has to do with something called inalienable possession. A possession that’s inalienable is an integral part of the possessor. These include parts of the body, like rnqg paw or slPqg tail; metaphysical things like sLg soul or sfBg mind; and aspects of identity such as rJhg language or sBfGHg faith.
+Things that are inalienable use the first- and second-person noun suffixes, and things that are alienable use the 3rd person proximal suffix for my… and the 3rd person medial suffix for your….
+  bc   g     rnq-l   qgKq-p      sMp
+  on   POS   paw-1   yinrih-3D   tread
+That yinrih stepped on my paw.
+  bc   g     sgHq-Mr    qgKq-p      sMp
+  on   POS   grass-3P   yinrih-3D   tread
+That yinrih stepped on my grass.
+In the first example, the speaker is referring to his paw, which is an integral part of his body. In the second, the speaker may own the grass being stepped on, but it isn’t an inseparable part of him.
+Words that describe a relationship between two people, such as sFsFg friend can take either form, depending on how strong the relationship is according to the speaker. Someone you address as g sFsFMr is likely to be a casual acquaintance, but g sFsFl is someone you can really rely on.
+You can also combine the two ways of expressing possession.
+  rGhq-p     b    g     sFsF-l     jr
+  house-3D   of   POS   friend-1   big
+My friend’s house is big.
+What About Pronouns?
+Commonthroat does not have any pronouns. There’s no me or she or they or what. You’ve got to use a noun, even when referring to yourself or the listener. The noun you use can be chosen based on a few factors.
+How you feel about the situation you’re describing:
+  g     qCD-Mr       kHr                rkHr-l
+  POS   brother-3P   strike_with_tail   angry-1
+My brother struck me, the angry one, with his tail.
+My brother hit me, and I’m angry about it.
+Or what was going on when the event occurred:
+  Plq-qn     fCq    rDBq-qN
+  digger-2   find   money-3M
+You, the digger, found money.
+You found money while digging.
+But the easiest and most common strategy is to simply drop the word altogether. If context makes it clear who’s doing what, you can drop the subject or object. This is especially true for first person subjects.
+  qCq   g     sFsF-l
+  see   POS   friend-1
+[I] saw my friend
+You can even do this with both the subject and the object.
+  qCq
+  see
+[I] saw [him].
+But this would not be done in isolation like this example. It would be used as a response or in the middle of a conversation where context could fill in the blanks.
+== Compound Words ==
+In English compound words, the first word modifies the second word. A doghouse is a kind of house, and a house dog is a kind of dog. In Commonthroat, the second word modifies the first.
+  rnq-CDq-g
+  paw-hold-3I
+holding paw (human hand)
+  rnq-rfbr-g
+  paw-walk-3I
+walking paw (human foot)
+Both compounds start with rnqg, as both are considered types of paws. Since yinrih use all four paws for both grasping and movement, Commonthroat does not distinguish between the forepaws and rear paws in the same way that English does with hand and foot. Examples 33 and 34 are Commonthroat’s way of telling human extremities apart.
+== Proper Names ==
+Names in Commonthroat are formed from noun or verb phrases combined into one word, with a name suffix added. The content of the name does not indicate the person’s gender, but the suffix does.
+Many names have something to do with light or phenomena that produce light, as light is heavily associated with the divine.
+  qfr-rmK-sk-Mr
+  fire-hearth-MALE.NAME-3P
+Hearthfire (male)
+  qfr-rmK-sd-Mr
+  fire-hearth-FEMALE.NAME-3P
+Hearthfire (female)
+  qMNr-Mr-BCq-sd-Mr
+  sun-3P-shine-FEMALE.NAME-3P
+She shines like the sun.
+Sunshine
+== Direct Address ==
+English uses vocal inflection to indicate that the speaker is directly addressing the listener. This is indicated by commas in writing. Compare Let’s eat, grandma. and Let’s eat grandma.
+Commonthroat also uses pauses to indicate direct address.
+  qfrrmKsk-qn,    sfc-p    lPr     HJq-p
+  hearthfire-2,   pup-3D   climb   tree-3D
+Hearthfire, the pup climbed the tree.
+Don’t confuse this with inflecting the subject or object in the second person.
+  qfrrmKsk-qn    lPr     HJq-p
+  hearthfire-2   climb   tree-3D
+You climbed the tree, Hearthfire.
+In the first example, Hearthfire is being addressed, but he isn’t climbing the tree, the pup is. In the second, the speaker is relating that Hearthfire climbed the tree to Hearthfire himself. In English, this expression requires the use of the second person pronoun you as the subject and the name of the listener set off as a direct address, but in Commonthroat, the deictic ending on the noun makes it clear that the noun refers to the listener.
+== Simple Declaratives ==
+If you want to say That’s a… or I’m a…, you can simply state the noun inflected with the appropriate suffix.
+  sfc-l
+  pup-1
+I’m a pup.
+  HJq-Mr
+  tree-3P
+This is a tree.
+You can include adjectives.
+  sfc-Mr   jk
+  pup-3P   little
+This is a small pup.
+This pup is small.
+Note that this example can be interpreted in two different ways in English, even though the overall meaning is the same. There is a pup close to the speaker, and he is small.
+This is also how you introduce yourself.
+  qfrrmKsk-l
+  Hearthfire-1
+I’m Hearthfire.
+My name is Hearthfire.
+=== Conjunctions ===
+Words like j /short high weak growl/ and, and l /short low weak grunt/ or, work similarly to how they do in English.
+  qCq-0   qMqm-g     j     qgKq-g
+  see-A   human-3I   and   yinrih-3I
+I saw a human and a yinrih.
+  DB-0    rfbr-0             l    DB-0    rDB-0
+  can-A   walk.on.4.legs-A   or   can-A   walk.on.2.legs-A
+You can walk on four legs or you can walk on two legs.
+If you want to say both… and… or either… or… repeat the conjunction at the beginning of the list.
+  qCq-0   j     qMqm-g     j     qgKq-g
+  see-A   and   human-3I   and   yinrih-3I
+I saw both a human and a yinrih.
+  l    rBFr   sNLr-g   l    qBf   sNLr-g
+  or   four   leg-3I   or   two   leg-3I
+Either four legs or two legs.
+This is a proverb that means something that applies equally to humans and yinrih.
+==== Verbs ====
+Verbs lack a lot of the inflection seen in other languages. They don’t indicate tense. lPr can mean climb, climbed, or will climb, depending on context or clarifying adverbs like yesterday or soon. There are no complicated conjugations to memorize. lPr is always lPr regardless of who’s doing the climbing or how many of them there are.
+=== Moods ===
+Verbs do change based on mood. Mood is a complicated and nuanced topic in Commonthroat, and the same verb form can mean different things in different situations.
+The Authoritative and Nonauthoritative Moods
+All the examples so far have been in the authoritative mood. It’s considered the default verb form and has no suffix, or in linguistics terms it’s said to have a null suffix. You’ll see this marked as -0 in the top line of glosses, and it has a glossing abbreviation of -A. In general, the authoritative mood indicates that the speaker is confident that the statement is true. The sentence The pup climbed the tree ' is presented below with the authoritative mood marked in the gloss.
+  sfc-p    lPr-0     HJq-g
+  pup-3D   climb-A   tree-3I
+The pup climbed the tree.
+The authoritative mood is contrasted with the nonauthoritative mood, marked with the suffix -b /short low weak whine/. The nonauthoritative mood indicates a hedge on the part of the speaker regarding the truth of the statement. Nonauthoritative verbs are usually translated as I think that… or it seems that… or with words like may or might.
+  sfc-p    lPr-b      HJq-g
+  pup-3D   climb-NA   tree-3I
+The pup may have climbed a tree.
+=== Egophoricity ===
+When the subject of a sentence is in the first person, the verb ending indicates whether the action was intentional or not. This is referred to as egophoricity. Authoritative verbs indicate the action was done on purpose. Nonauthoritative verbs indicate the action was unintentional.
+  B      HJq-p     smpr-b
+  from   tree-3D   fall-NA
+I fell from the tree (accidentally).
+  B      HJq-p     smpr-0
+  from   tree-3D   fall-A
+I fell from the tree (on purpose).
+I dropped down from the tree.
+Egophoricity also occurs in questions when the subject is in the second person.
+  mp    B      HJq-p     sFsF-qn    smpr-b
+  INT   from   tree-3D   friend-2   fall-NA
+Did you fall from the tree?
+=== Evidentiality ===
+If you have a main clause with a verb like see, hear, etc, where the object of the verb is another clause describing what is seen or heard, the verb in the object clause can be in the authoritative form if the speaker directly witnessed the event (not necessarily visually). If the speaker is inferring the event based on indirect evidence, the second verb is in the nonauthoritative form.
+Consider the following scenario: A dam is watching one of her pups play outside, and she sees him cut his tail against a thorny plant.
+     qCq-0   rdc-qn   rlnq-0   g     slPq-qn
+  [I]   see-A   poor-2   cut-A    POS   tail-2
+I saw you cut your tail, poor dear.
+A similar situation, but the child comes inside after playing, and one of his dams notices that his tail is bleeding, but didn’t see him cut his tail.
+     qCq-0   rdc-qn   rlnq-b   g     slpq-qn
+  [I]   see-A   poor-2   cut-NA   POS   tail-2
+I see you cut your tail, poor dear.
+These two examples illustrate another use for first and second person nouns. The word slpqg /yip, short rising strengthening grunt, huff, short low weak growl/ means poor or pitiable, and is a term often used when the speaker wishes to express empathy for the listener’s plight.
+The Dogmatic Mood
+The dogmatic mood is marked with the suffix -K /long high strong growl/. It is used when the truth of the statement is being emphasized. It may be translated using the emphatic do in English. In glosses it has the abbreviation -DOG.
+  sfc-p    lPr-K       HJq-p
+  pup-3D   climb-DOG   tree-3D
+The pup did climb a tree.
+I swear the pup climbed the tree.
+The dogmatic mood is also used when making promises.
+  sjr        0     rGKqsfb-K
+  tomorrow   [I]   return-DOG
+I promise I’ll be back tomorrow.
+And when making threats.
+     sNMq-K     khqkh-qn
+  [I]   kill-DOG   guy-2
+I WILL kill you.
+Other uses of the dogmatic mood include proclaiming laws, making axiomatic statements, and expressing confidence or trust.
+The Mirative Mood
+The mirative mood is used to indicate surprise on the part of the speaker. Mirative verbs end in -sfsf /yip, short high strong whine, yip, short high strong whine/. In glosses it has the abbreviation -MIR.
+  sfc-p    lPr-sfsf    HJq-g
+  pup-3D   climb-MIR   tree-3I
+Wow! The pup climbed a tree!
+The mirative mood can be used to express sarcasm. If one speaker makes an assertion using the dogmatic mood:
+  p    g     rMLcdr-Mr     nl-K        khqkhfd-g       NPr
+  in   POS   computer-3P   is_at-DOG   little.guy-3I   odd
+I swear there’s a funny little guy in my computer.
+The responder may repeat the assertion, inflecting the verb in the mirative mood in mock surprise:
+  p    g     rMLcdr-qN     nl-sfsf     khqkh-fd-g   NPr
+  in   POS   computer-3M   is_at-MIR   guy-DIM-3I   odd
+Really? There’s a funny little guy in your computer?
+=== Modal Particles ===
+The four basic verbal moods can be further narrowed by using modal particles. Modal particles are placed at the beginning of a sentence before the subject or any adverbs.
+== The Imperative mood ==
+The imperative mood is formed using the modal particle G /long low weak growl/.
+  G     qMP-0    g     rnq-qn
+  IMP   wash-A   POS   paw-2
+Wash your paws.
+You can make it more polite by inflecting the verb in the nonauthoritative mood.
+  G     qMP-b     g     rnq-qn
+  IMP   wash-NA   POS   paw-2
+Please wash your paws.
+You can also use the imperative mood when the subject is in something other than the second person. This is sometimes called the jussive mood.
+  G     qMP-0    g     rnq-p
+  IMP   wash-A   POS   paw-3D
+He must wash his paws.
+You can make a negative command by using the adverb rnL not.
+  G     rnL   P    BFr-p     0       sD-0
+  IMP   not   in   room-3D   [you]   go-A
+Don’t go in there!
+== The Prohibitive Mood ==
+The Prohibitive mood is not part of the standard language. It's used by Moonies (inhabitants of the moons of Welkinstead) as well as within the Spacer Confederacy. While the Imperitive mood orders you to do something, the Prohibitive mood orders you not to do something. It uses the modal particle Gr /long low weak growl, chuff/ which is a contraction of the more usual G rnL.
+Standard Commonthroat
+  G     rnL   qdBq-0    scBq-p     qnlqCb-K
+  IMP   not   drink-A   water-3D   make_sick-DOG
+Don't drink that water; it'll make you sick!
+Moony Dialect
+  Gr     qdBq-0    scBq-p     qnlqCb-K
+  PROH   drink-A   water-3D   make_sick-DOG
+Don't drink that water; it'll make you sick!
+== The Optative Mood ==
+The optative mood expresses hopes, wishes, and desires. It is formed with the particle L /long low weak grunt/ along with the nonauthoritative form of the verb. The most well-known use of the optative is in the Holy Greeting.
+  L     rLPq-p     BCq-b           sFsF-qn!
+  OPT   light-3D   illuminate-NA   friend-2
+Light shine upon you, friend!
+The Hortative Mood
+The hortative mood expresses encouragement. It is often confused with the polite imperative in some dialects. It uses the particle Ln /late rising weak grunt/. The hortative can act like an imperative, but implies that the listener would benefit from performing the action. It can be translated as you really should… or Let’s… The festive greeting during the winter feast uses the hortative mood.
+  Ln     sFsF-qn    rpMr-b     hgq   h    MNq-Mr   rgj-0      rmn
+  HORT   friend-2   happy-NA   for   PL   day-3P   become-A   long
+Take heart, friend, for the days grow longer.
+== The Necessitative Mood ==
+The necessitative mood expresses need or requirement. It uses the particle pM /early falling strong grunt/. It differs from the imperative in that the speaker isn’t commanding that an action be done, and it differs from the optative mood in that the speaker may not want what he’s describing, but he does need it.
+  pM    sG   g     rGhq-Mr   sD-0
+  NEC   to   POS   home-3P   go-A
+I need to go home.
+I should go to my home.
+There is a subtle difference between the necessitative mood and the 3rd person imperative. The imperative implies the subject as the agency necessary to carry out the action, but the necessitative does not.
+  G     HJq-p     rgj-0
+  IMP   tree-3D   grow-A
+That tree must grow.*
+The example above sounds ungrammatical to native speakers because the tree has no say in whether it grows or not.
+  pM    HJq-p     rgj-0
+  NEC   tree-3D   grow-A
+This sentence sounds better to native speakers.
+=== Verb Serialization and Coverbs ===
+Commonthroat verbs have no infinitive form. Instead, you serialize verbs to indicate things like the purpose or result of a verb of motion, as well as to indicate aspect.
+  rGKq   qJq
+  come   swim
+[I’m] coming to swim.
+  lPr     HJq-Mr        rCFq   qcD-g
+  climb   tree-3.PROX   eat    fruit-3.INDEF
+[I’m] climbing this tree to eat some fruit.
+==== Asking Questions ====
+One way to ask questions has already been covered. By inflecting a noun with an interrogative ending, you can ask the listener to identify the noun so inflected.
+  rMLcdr-BD      qgJ-0
+  computer-INT   use-A
+Which computer do I use?
+If you want to ask how many of something there are, you inflect the noun Cbg /late low weakening whine, short low weak growl/ number, amount with the interrogative ending.
+  Cb-BD        g     qhq-qN    j     dcr-qN
+  Amount-INT   POS   sire-3M   and   dam-3M
+What number are your sires and dams?
+How many sires and dams do you have?
+This is not a trivial question, as yinrih can have anywhere from two to twelve natural parents.
+You can ask simple yes/no questions by sticking the word mp /short rising strong grunt/ at the beginning of the sentence.
+  mp    rMLcdr-Mr     qgJ
+  INT   computer-3P   use
+Do I use this computer?
+  qln-DB       0       qfdr-0
+  manner-INT   [you]   stand-A
+How do you stand?
+This is how you ask someone if they’re OK.
+Using the Nonauthoritative Mood When Asking and Answering Questions
+When you ask a question with a third person subject, you can mark the verb as nonauthoritative if you think it’s a stupid question.
+  mp    BC-K       qMqm-g     rBD-b
+  INT   all-time   human-3I   walk.on.hind.feet-NA
+Stupid question, but do humans walk on their hind feet all the time?
+I should really know this already, but do humans walk on their hind feet all the time?
+I know you told me before, but I forgot. Do humans walk on their hind feet all the time?
+As with normal yes/no questions, the person answers by repeating the main verb. If he inflects it in the dogmatic mood, that indicates he regards the answer as definitive.
+  rBD-K
+  walk.on.hind.feet-DOG
+Yes, they do walk on their hind feet [all the time].
+If, however, the person answering the question wants you to take his response with a grain of salt, or wants you to trust but verify his answer, he can infelect the verb in the nonauthoritative mood.
+  rBD-b
+  walk.on.hind.feet-NA
+Yes, I think they do.
+I’m pretty sure they do.
+I think so, but don’t take my word for it.
+Just like in English, questions can be rhetorical rather than literal.
+  rnL   nq      h    qnlq-g    lNrm-DB      rnP-0
+  not   Among   PL   sick-3I   healer-INT   live-A
+What healer does not abide among the sick?
+==== Indirect Objects ====
+Words like give and show take an indirect object denoting to whom something is being given or shown. In Commonthroat, the preposition rl /chuff, short low weak growl/ indicates an indirect object. In glosses, this is abbreviated DAT for dative, reflecting a similar construction in Latin and Greek.
+  rl    g     sFsF-Mr     0     dFr-0    HJq-Mr
+  DAT   POS   friend-3P   [I]   show-A   tree-3P
+I showed the tree to my friend.
+Commonthroat has several phrases that use the verb qcDr /huff, early rising weakening whine, chuff/ //to give// along with an indirect object to form phrases that English uses a single verb for. These include:
+rl ___ qcDr qgjg: to give care to ___, To care for ___, to show reverence for ___
+rl ___ qcDr rfDqg: to give interest to ___, To be interested in ___, to pay attention to ___
+rl ___ qcDr nLqg: to give honor to ___, To honor ___, to venerate ___
+rl ___ qcDr kgg: to give glory to ___, to worship ___
+  rl    rdr   rLPq-p     g     sL-l     qcDr-K     kg-g
+  DAT   one   light-3D   POS   soul-1   give-DOG   glory-3I
+My soul shall give glory to the one Light.
+My soul shall worship the Light alone.
+  j     rl    h    snp-qN    qcDr-K     nLq-g
+  and   DAT   PL   holy-3M   give-DOG   honor
+And to the saints I shall give honor.
+And I shall honor the saints.
+  j     rl    rjGJfd-Mr            sMlr   qcDr-K     qgj-g
+  and   DAT   little_creation-3P   dear   give-DOG   care-3I
+And to this dear little Creation I shall give care.
+And I shall care for this dear little Creation.
+==== Voice and Coverbs ====
+=== The Passive Voice ===
+Most sentences are in the active voice, which is when the subject of the sentence does something to the object. In English, we’d say The dog bit the man. The subject (the dog) is doing something (biting) to the object (the man). Here’s a typical Commonthroat sentence in the active voice.
+  rBFrrnqsk-Mr   kHr-0      sPlqBdsk-p
+  four.paw-3P    strike-A   wet.nose-3D
+Fourpaws struck Wetnose.
+What if we wanted to put the focus on the object instead of the subject? We’d use the passive voice, in which the subject of the sentence is being acted upon. In English, you form the passive voice by using the verb to be plus the past participle of the main verb. You can indicate who’s doing the acting by using the preposition by. The man was bitten by the dog.
+In Commonthroat, we use a coverb. Coverbs are a kind of hybrid between a verb and a preposition. Like prepositions, they can take an object. Like verbs, they are inflected for mood. The example below expresses the same idea as the previous one, but it uses the passive coverb rj /chuff, short high weak growl/. The object of rj is the person performing the action expressed by the main verb, and the subject of the whole sentence is the one being acted upon. In linguistics, this is called the patient, and the person doing the action is called the agent.
+  sPlqBdsk-p    rj-0    rBFrrnqsk-Mr   kHr-0
+  wet.nose-3D   PAS-A   four.paw-3P    strike-A
+Wetnose was struck by Fourpaws.
+Just as in English, you can avoid mentioning who’s performing the action by simply dropping it. The man was bitten. It may not be important who bit the man, or the speaker may wish to avoid saying who bit the man.
+In Commonthroat, we can also drop the agent, but we must keep the coverb to indicate the sentence is passive.
+  sPlqBdsk-p    rj-0    kHr-0
+  wet.nose-3D   PAS-A   strike-A
+Wetnose was struck.
+=== The Reciprocal Voice ===
+Many languages have a way of expressing that the subject and the object of a sentence acted upon one another. English uses the reciprocal construction one another. The dog and the man bit one another.
+Commonthroat uses another coverb, pr /short high strong grunt, chuff/. If there are two different parties acting on one another, one is placed at the head of the sentence as the subject and the other is the object of the coverb pr.
+  rBFrrnqsk-Mr   pr-0     sPlqBdsk-p    kHr-0
+  four.paws-3P   RECP-A   wet.nose-3D   strike-A
+Wetnose and Fourpaws struck one another.
+If you have a plural noun or a noun that otherwise indicates a group such as LMrg assembly, moot, you can simply place that in the subject position and use the coverb without an object as you would with a passive construction whose agent is missing.
+  LMr-Mr    pr-0     rDB-0
+  moot-3P   RECP-A   speak-A
+The congregation spoke amongst themselves.
+=== The Reflexive Voice ===
+The agent can also be the patient of the same action. This is called the reflexive voice. It’s used when someone does something to himself. English uses reflexive pronouns myself, yourself, herself, etc.
+Commonthroat uses another coverb. This time it’s rp /chuff, short high strong grunt/. It’s used in the same manner as the passive voice without an agent.
+  rBFrrnqsk-Mr   rp-0     kHr-0
+  four.paws-3P   RFLX-A   strike-A
+Fourpaws struck himself.
+As with the reciprocal voice, you can use a noun referring to more than one person, or to a group. In this case it indicates that each member of the group acted upon himself as an individual.
+  LMr-Mr    rp-0     rDB-0
+  moot-3P   RFLX-A   speak-A
+The members of the congregation spoke each to himself.
+Words that Change Meaning Depending on Voice
+Some words take on a different meaning when used with a certain voice. For example, the word rDB /chuff, long falling weak whine/ means to say or to speak. In the reciprocal voice, pr rDB, it means to discuss. The word sf /yip, short high strong whine/ in the active voice means to yip, as in to utter the sound denoted by the letter s. In the reciprocal voice pr sf it means to chit-chat or to make small talk.
+^Verb^Active Meaning^Reflexive (rp)^Reciprocal (pr)^
+|rDB|say, speak|x|discuss|
+|PMrCb|calm (transitive)|unwind, relax|x|
+|rNmplr|ferment|grow old|x|
+|BFq|concern, occupy|worry|x|
+|sf|yip|x|chit-chat|
+|sKj|jostle, shake|shake oneself off, as to rid one's fur of dust or water|x|
+==== Aspect ====
+Aspect refers to how the action described by a verb extends over time. That sounds a lot like tense, doesn’t it? However, tense has to do with when in time an action takes place. For example, the sentences I walk and I am walking are both in the present tense, but the first sentence is in the simple aspect, while the second is in the progressive aspect. This distinction also exists in the past tense. I walked and I was walking, as well as the future tense, I will walk and I will be walking. The simple aspect describes actions that are regarded as a complete whole, while the progressive describes actions that are ongoing, and often occur simultaneously with other actions. I was walking and I saw my friend.
+While Commonthroat verbs do not indicate tense. You have to use context or time-related adverbs to relate when an action takes place. Verbs by themselves don’t have inherent aspect, either, but Commonthroat has a number of fixed serial verb constructions that indicate aspect, and this can give a different shade of meaning to the verb.
+=== The Prospective Aspect ===
+The prospective aspect indicates that an action is on the verge of occuring, and uses the verb Lmq /late low strengthening grunt, huff/, which means to fix or to repair.
+     Lmq-0   lPr-0     HJq-Mr
+  [I]   fix-A   climb-A   tree-3P
+I’m about to climb this tree.
+=== The Completative Aspect ===
+The completative aspect indicates that an action has come to a natural end. It uses the verb bf /short rising strengthening whine/, which means to finish, or to complete.
+     bf-0       rCFq-0
+  [I]   finish-A   eat-A
+I’ve finished eating.
+Quick word of warning: you might be tempted to say qhgl I’m full if you want to politely decline a second helping of food. This is actually a euphemistic way of saying I have to use the restroom. It still means you’re full, just not your stomach. While we’re on this tangent, don’t say qhgqn you’re full, either. It means you’re full of it!
+=== The Cesative Aspect ===
+The completative aspect contrasts with the cesative aspect. The cesative aspect indicates that an action stopped abruptly, without coming to a natural conclusion. Compare I finished talking and I stopped talking. The first sentence indicates that you were done, while the second does not. The cesative aspect uses the verb fb /short falling weakening whine/ which means to stop or to halt
+     fb-0     rCFq-0
+  [I]   stop-A   eat-A
+I stopped eating.
+=== The Inchoative Aspect ===
+The inchoative aspect indicates that the action described by a verb is just starting. It uses the verb sg /yip, short low weak growl/ to begin.
+     sg-0      lPr-0     HJq-p
+  [I]   begin-A   climb-A   tree-3D
+I begin climbing the tree.
+=== The Superfective Aspect ===
+The superfective aspect uses the verb GJq /long rising weak growl, huff/ which means to persist or to keep on.
+  rdc-Mr    GJq-0       sFb-0
+  poor-3P   persist-A   vomit-A
+This poor guy keeps vomiting.
+Why am I making a big deal about these aspects? They just seem like regular serial verb constructions. Well, some verbs have different meanings depending on their aspect.
+rn I know becomes sg rn I find out and fb rn I forget.
+Important note: sg specifically means to start a task or start doing something. If you want to say start in the sense of turn on, that’s rMNq ignite. Similarly, to say you turned something off, that’s qNMr extinguish.
+fCq /early falling strong whine, huff/ means have or possess. sg fCq means begin to have, find or come across. fb fCq stop having means to lose or relinquish.
+These aspects are well-established across dialects, but other looser constructions exist as well.
+===== Adverbial phrases expressing time =====
+In English, we think of the past as being behind us and the future as being ahead. In Commonthroat, the past is below and the future is above. When discussing at which point in time an event occurred, you use the adverbial phrase DC m /long falling strengthening whine/ below. for events that occurred in the past, and CD`` m /long rising weakening whine/ above for events that will occur in the future. You precede this phrase with time words like sdFr shkqg a few years or KJq MNqg three days and so forth.
+  qBf   MNq-p    DC      m     0     bf-0       GJHG-p
+  two   day-3D   below   ADV   [I]   finish-A   task-3D
+I finished that task 2 days ago.
+  sdFr   MNq-Mr   CD      m     0     sBr-0
+  some   day-3P   above   ADV   [I]   leave-A
+I’m leaving in a few days.
+Notice that the word Mnqg day can take deictic suffixes. In general, which suffix is used indicates whether the timespan was long or short in the speaker’s estimation. Using the proximal suffix indicates that the event described happened in the recent past or will happen in the immediate future. The distal suffix is used if the timespan is judged to be very long.
+The first example may also be translated I’ve been done with that task for two days already. The second could also be translated I’m leaving in just a few days.
+Similarly, you can use the interrogative suffix to ask how long ago or how long from now an event will take place.
+  MNr-BD    DC      m     0       bf-0       GJHG-p
+  day-INT   below   ADV   [you]   finish-A   task-3D
+How many days ago did you finish that task?
+===== Writing =====
+==== Visual System ====
+Commonthroat is written using a reverse abjad. Vowels are full letters. Consonants (huffs, chuffs, and yips) are written as mandatory diacritcs when they form the onset of a syllable, and as full letters when in coda position. The romanization used throughout this article matches the writing system 1:1, with the exception that the Romanization renders onsets as full letters as well.
+==== Tactile Systems ====
+Yinrih rely on their rear paws almost as much as their front paws for manipulating objects. This is especially true for spacers, who live permenantly aboard orbital colonies in microgravity. The labels of containers and controls are written in a tactile writing system to ease identification and orientation without looking.
+Along with this endemic system, yinrih on Earth additionally use a Braille system adapted for Commonthroat.
+The Braille system is featural. Dots 1, 2, and 4 together indicate the phonation type. Dots 1-4 is a whine, 1-2-4 a growl, and 2-4 a grunt. Dots 3, 5, and 6 indicate length, tone, and strength, respectively. An unraised dot represents short, low, or weak. A raised dot represents long, high, or strong. Consonants do not follow a pattern. Dots 3-4 is a huff, 3-4-5 a chuff, and 3-4-6 a yip.
+^Print Romanization^Computer Braille^Braille Symbol (Unicode)^Dots^Sound^
+|b|c|⠉|14|short low weak whine|
+|B|m|⠍|134|long low weak whine|
+|c|%|⠩|146|short low strong whine|
+|C|x|⠭|1346|long low strong whine|
+|d|d|⠙|145|short high weak whine|
+|D|n|⠝|1345|long high weak whine|
+|f|?|⠹|1456|short high strong whine|
+|F|y|⠽|13456|long high strong whine|
+|g|f|⠋|124|short low weak growl|
+|G|p|⠏|1234|long low weak growl|
+|h|$|⠫|1246|short low strong growl|
+|H|&|⠯|12346|long low strong growl|
+|j|g|⠛|1245|short high weak growl|
+|J|q|⠟|12345|long high weak growl|
+|k|]|⠻|12456|short high strong growl|
+|K|=|⠿|123456|long high strong growl|
+|l|i|⠊|24|short low weak grunt|
+|L|s|⠎|234|long low weak grunt|
+|m|[|⠪|246|short low strong grunt|
+|M|!|⠮|2346|long low strong grunt|
+|n|j|⠚|245|short high weak grunt|
+|N|t|⠞|2345|long high weak grunt|
+|p|w|⠺|2456|short high strong grunt|
+|P|)|⠾|23456|long high strong grunt|
+|q|/|⠌|34|huff|
+|r|>|⠜|345|chuff|
+|s|+|⠬|346|yip|
+  : Commonthroat Braille