Commonthroat: Difference between revisions

= History =

When the Partisans threatened to conquer the entire system, Yih and the other inner planets, save Hearthside, formed a defensive alliance in order to maintain the independence they had just clawed back from the clergy. Over time, this union grew more culturally and economically integrated. Other languages on Yih, Newhome, and Welkinstead, as well as among Sweetwater's benthic cities, were displaced by the more prestegious Commonthroat. This left Focus with only three languages with state recognition and reasonably sized communities of speakers at the time of First Contact. Hearthside retains a unique language, and Outlander is the official language of both Moonlitter and Partisan Territory. Tiny isolated communities on the surface of Sweetwater and in the Spacer Confederacy still retain their own languages, including quite a few that were devised by founding groups of [[Atavism | Atavists]].

= Sounds =

But what about length? If the first vowel is short and the second is long, then the change from one vowel to the other occurs earlier in the syllable, so we call these contours ''early''. If the first vowel is long and the second is short, the change occurs later in the syllable, so these contours are called ''late''.

== Consonants ==

Before discussing the grammar, we need to touch on interlinear glosses. A gloss is a word-by-word translation of a language sample. In this document, glosses contain three parts. The first part is a sample of Commonthroat. Prefixes and suffixes may be set off from the rest of their parent word by hyphens. The second part, directly below, is a word-by-word translation of the sample, with the English word left-aligned to its corresponding Commonthroat word above. Abbreviations of linguistic terms are written using capital letters. Simple glosses may not hyphenate prefixes or suffixes to make the example clearer.

== Syntax ==

The basic word order is subject-verb-object, like in English.

{|

|sfcp || lPr || HJqp

|}

''The pup climbed the tree.''

Adjectives follow the nouns they describe.

{|

|sfcp || rpM || lPr || HJqp || rbfq

|}

''The small pup climbed the old tree.''

Adjectives can also act like verbs.

{|

|sfcp || rpM

|}

''The pup is small.''

{|

|HJqp || rbfq

|}

''The tree is old.''

Adverbs that modify an entire sentence can come before the subject.

{|

|spr || sfcp || lPr || HJqp

|}

''The pup climbed the tree yesterday.''

Adverbs can also come right after the verb they describe.

{|

|sfcp || lPr || rpMr || HJqp

|}

''The pup happily climbed the tree.''

Adjectives can act like adverbs simply by moving them to the beginning of the sentence.

{|

|sfcp || rNlr

|}

''The pup is good.''

{|

|sfcp || rNlr || lPr || HJqp

|}

''The good pup climbed the tree.''

{|

|rNlr || sfcp || lPr || HJqp

|}

''The pup climbed the tree well.''

Prepositional phrases can act like adverbs, modifying an entire sentence. In this case they are placed before the subject just like adverbs.

{|

|P || dqp || sfcp || lPr || HJqp

|}

''In the forest, the pup climbed the tree.''

Prepositional phrases can also act as adjectives, modifying a noun, and are placed after the noun like an adjective.

{|

|sfcp || lPr || HJqp || bc || qDCp

|}

''On the mountain the pup climbed the tree.''

The word for ''not'' is <code>rnL</code> /chuff, early falling weak grunt/. It behaves like an adverb.

{|

|rnL || sfcp || lPr  HJqp

|}

''The pup did not climb the tree.''

== Nouns ==

Here’s where Commonthroat gets a little alien. Nouns change their ending depending on where the object the noun refers to is in space relative to the speaker. The technical term for this is ''deixis''. English also indicates deixis, but it uses ''demonstratives'' like ''this'' and ''that''. Demonstratives are optional in English, but not in Commonthroat.

{|

|sfc-p || lPr || HJq-p

|}

''That pup climbed that tree.''

The <code>D</code> in the gloss stands for ''distal'' which is the technical term for a demonstrative that indicates that something is far away from the speaker.

But what if the tree and the pup were a little closer? We’d use a ''medial'' suffix <code>-qN</code> /huff, long high weak grunt/. Which is abbreviated ''M'' in glosses.

{|

|sfc-qN || lPr || HJq-qN

|}

''This pup climbed this tree.''

Normally, a medial suffix is used for something close to the listener but far from the speaker. If we wanted to say that all this was happening right next to the speaker, we’d use a ''proximal'' suffix, <code>-Mr</code> /long low strong grunt, chuff/, abbreviated ''P'' in glosses.

{|

|sfc-Mr || lPr || HJq-Mr

|}

''This pup climbed this tree.''

So far, so good, right? But what if we didn’t know or didn’t care where this stuff was happening? Commonthroat uses an ''indefinite'' suffix for that: <code>-g</code> /short low weak growl/. It’s abbreviated as ''I'' in glosses.

{|

|sfc-g || lPr || HJq-g

|pup-I || climb || tree-I

|}

''A pup climbed a tree.''

Note that Modern English only distinguishes between two levels of demonstratives, proximal ''this'' and distal ''that''. Older forms of English had a three-way distinction among proximal ''this'', medial ''that'', and distal ''yonder''.

There’s also no reason why the pup and the tree in these examples must share the same deictic suffix. You could say

{|

|sfc-Mr || lPr || HJq-g

|pup-P || climb || tree-I

|}

''This pup climbs trees.''

{|

|sfc-qN || lPr || HJq-p

|pup-M || climb || tree-D

|}

''That pup climbed yonder tree.''

To summarize, let’s look at a noun with each of the suffixes we’ve discussed so far. We’ll look at the word <code>sFsFg</code> /yip, long high strong whine, yip, long high strong whine, short low weak growl/ which means ''friend''.

| sFsFp || yonder friend

|}

=== Personal Deixis ===

All the noun endings I’ve introduced are in the third person. From now on, the glosses of third person suffixes will include a 3 as a reminder. Any noun can also be inflected in the first or second person if the noun refers to the speaker or listener. So, if the speaker were the pup in the above examples, he’d say

{|

|sfc-l || lPr || HJq-g

|}

''I, a pup, climbed a tree.''

If the speaker wanted to indicate that the listener was the pup, he’d say

{|

|sfc-qn || lPr || HJq-g

|}

''You, the pup, climbed a tree.''

But it gets weirder. It’s perfectly grammatical for the speaker to indicate that they or the listener are the tree. When a noun that is clearly not a person is given a first- or second-person suffix, it is understood to be metaphorical.

{|

|sfc-g || lPr || HJq-qn

|}

''A pup climbed you as though you were a tree.''

=== Interrogative Nouns ===

There’s one last noun ending we need to cover. If you don’t know which pup climbed the tree, or which tree the pup climbed, and want the listener to identify the tree or the pup, you’d use the interrogative ending <code>-BD</code> /long rising weak whine/, which is abbreviated ''INT'' in glosses

{|

|sfc-p || lPr || HJq-BD

|}

''What tree did that pup climb?''

{|

|sfc-BD || lPr || HJq-g

|}

''Which pup climbed a tree?'' ''What pup climbs trees?''

=== Deictic Suffixes ===

There are two ways of indicating possession. One method uses the preposition <code>b</code> /short low weak whine/, translated as ''of'' in English, and it behaves identically as well.

{|

|}

{|

|g || sfc-p || lPr || HJq-p

|}

''Her pup climbed the tree.''

You may notice that there are two ways of saying ''my friend'' and ''your friend''. The difference has to do with something called ''inalienable possession''. A possession that’s inalienable is an integral part of the possessor. These include parts of the body, like <code>rnqg</code> ''paw'' or <code>slPqg</code> ''tail''; metaphysical things like sLg ''soul'' or <code>sfBg</code> ''mind''; and aspects of identity such as <code>rJhg</code> ''language'' or <code>sBfGHg</code> ''faith''.

Things that are inalienable use the first- and second-person noun suffixes, and things that are alienable use the 3rd person proximal suffix for ''my…'' and the 3rd person medial suffix for ''your…''.

{|

|bc || g || rnq-l || qgKq-p || sMp

|}

''That yinrih stepped on my paw.''

{|

|bc || g || sgHq-Mr || qgKq-p || sMp

|}

''That yinrih stepped on my grass.''

Words that describe a relationship between two people, such as <code>sFsFg</code> ''friend'' can take either form, depending on how strong the relationship is according to the speaker. Someone you address as <code>g sFsFMr</code> is likely to be a casual acquaintance, but <code>g sFsFl</code> is someone you can really rely on.

You can also combine the two ways of expressing possession.

{|

|rGhq-p || b || g || sFsF-l || jr

|}

''My friend’s house is big.''

=== What About Pronouns? ===

How you feel about the situation you’re describing:

{|

|g || qCD-Mr || kHr || rkHr-l

''My brother hit me, and I’m angry about it.''

Or what was going on when the event occurred:

{|

|Plq-qn || fCq || rDBq-qN

''You found money while digging.''

{|

|qCq || g || sFsF-l

|}

''[I] saw my friend''

You can even do this with both the subject and the object.

{|

|qCq

|}

''[I] saw [him].''

But this would not be done in isolation like this example. It would be used as a response or in the middle of a conversation where context could fill in the blanks.

In English compound words, the first word modifies the second word. A ''doghouse'' is a kind of house, and a ''house dog'' is a kind of dog. In Commonthroat, the second word modifies the first.

{|

|rnq-CDq-g

|}

''holding paw (human hand)''

{|

|rnq-rfbr-g

|}

''walking paw (human foot)''

Both compounds start with <code>rnqg</code>, as both are considered types of paws. Since yinrih use all four paws for both grasping and movement, Commonthroat does not distinguish between the forepaws and rear paws in the same way that English does with ''hand'' and ''foot''. Examples 33 and 34 are Commonthroat’s way of telling human extremities apart.

Many names have something to do with light or phenomena that produce light, as light is heavily associated with the divine.

{|

|qfr-rmK-sk-Mr

|}

''Hearthfire (male)''

{|

|qfr-rmK-sd-Mr

|}

''Hearthfire (female)''

{|

|qMNr-Mr-BCq-sd-Mr

''Sunshine''

=== Direct Address ===

Commonthroat also uses pauses to indicate direct address.

{|

|qfrrmKsk-qn, || sfc-p || lPr || HJq-p

|}

''Hearthfire, the pup climbed the tree.''

Don’t confuse this with inflecting the subject or object in the second person.

{|

|qfrrmKsk-qn || lPr || HJq-p

|}

''You climbed the tree, Hearthfire.''

=== Simple Declaratives ===

If you want to say ''That’s a…'' or ''I’m a…'', you can simply state the noun inflected with the appropriate suffix.

{|

|sfc-l

|}

''I’m a pup.''

{|

|HJq-Mr

|}

''This is a tree.''

You can include adjectives.

{|

|sfc-Mr || jk

''This pup is small.''

This is also how you introduce yourself.

{|

|qfrrmKsk-l

''My name is Hearthfire.''

=== Conjunctions ===

Words like <code>j</code> /short high weak growl/ ''and'', and <code>l</code> /short low weak grunt/ ''or'', work similarly to how they do in English.

{|

|qCq-0 || qMqm-g || j || qgKq-g

|}

''I saw a human and a yinrih.''

{|

|DB-0 || rfbr-0 || l || DB-0 || rDB-0

|}

''You can walk on four legs or you can walk on two legs.''

If you want to say ''both… and…'' or ''either… or…'' repeat the conjunction at the beginning of the list.

{|

|qCq-0 || j || qMqm-g || j || qgKq-g

|}

''I saw both a human and a yinrih.''

{|

|l || rBFr || sNLr-g || l || qBf || sNLr-g

|}

''Either four legs or two legs.''

This is a proverb that means something that applies equally to humans and yinrih.

==== The Authoritative and Nonauthoritative Moods ====

{|

|sfc-p || lPr-0 || HJq-g

|}

''The pup climbed the tree.''

The authoritative mood is contrasted with the ''nonauthoritative mood'', marked with the suffix <code>-b</code> /short low weak whine/. The nonauthoritative mood indicates a hedge on the part of the speaker regarding the truth of the statement. Nonauthoritative verbs are usually translated as ''I think that…'' or ''it seems that…'' or with words like ''may'' or ''might''.

{|

|sfc-p || lPr-b || HJq-g

|}

''The pup may have climbed a tree.''

===== Egophoricity =====

When the subject of a sentence is in the first person, the verb ending indicates whether the action was intentional or not. This is referred to as ''egophoricity''. Authoritative verbs indicate the action was done on purpose. Nonauthoritative verbs indicate the action was unintentional.

{|

|B || HJq-p || smpr-b

|}

''I fell from the tree (accidentally).''

{|

|B || HJq-p || smpr-0

''I dropped down from the tree.''

Egophoricity also occurs in questions when the subject is in the second person.

{|

|mp || B || HJq-p || sFsF-qn || smpr-b

|}

''Did you fall from the tree?''

===== Evidentiality =====

Consider the following scenario: A dam is watching one of her pups play outside, and she sees him cut his tail against a thorny plant.

{|

|0 || qCq-0 || rdc-qn || rlnq-0 || g || slPq-qn

|}

''I saw you cut your tail, poor dear.''

A similar situation, but the child comes inside after playing, and one of his dams notices that his tail is bleeding, but didn’t see him cut his tail.

{|

|0 || qCq-0 || rdc-qn || rlnq-b || g || slpq-qn

|}

''I see you cut your tail, poor dear.''

==== The Dogmatic Mood ====

The dogmatic mood is marked with the suffix <code>-K</code> /long high strong growl/. It is used when the truth of the statement is being emphasized. It may be translated using the emphatic ''do'' in English. In glosses it has the abbreviation -DOG.

{|

|sfc-p || lPr-K || HJq-p

''I swear the pup climbed the tree.''

The dogmatic mood is also used when making promises.

{|

|sjr || 0 || rGKqsfb-K

|}

''I promise I’ll be back tomorrow.''

And when making threats.

{|

|0 || sNMq-K || khqkh-qn

|}

''I WILL kill you.''

==== The Mirative Mood ====

The ''mirative mood'' is used to indicate surprise on the part of the speaker. Mirative verbs end in <code>-sfsf</code> /yip, short high strong whine, yip, short high strong whine/. In glosses it has the abbreviation -MIR.

{|

|sfc-p || lPr-sfsf || HJq-g

|}

''Wow! The pup climbed a tree!''

The mirative mood can be used to express sarcasm. If one speaker makes an assertion using the dogmatic mood:

{|

|p || g || rMLcdr-Mr || nl-K || khqkhfd-g || NPr

|}

''I swear there’s a funny little guy in my computer.''

The responder may repeat the assertion, inflecting the verb in the mirative mood in mock surprise:

{|

|p || g || rMLcdr-qN || nl-sfsf || khqkh-fd-g || NPr

|}

''Really? There’s a funny little guy in your computer?''

=== Modal Particles ===

The imperative mood is formed using the modal particle <code>G</code> /long low weak growl/.

{|

|G || qMP-0 || g || rnq-qn

|}

''Wash your paws.''

You can make it more polite by inflecting the verb in the nonauthoritative mood.

{|

|G || qMP-b || g || rnq-qn

|}

''Please wash your paws.''

You can also use the imperative mood when the subject is in something other than the second person. This is sometimes called the ''jussive mood''.

{|

|G || qMP-0 || g || rnq-p

|}

''He must wash his paws.''

You can make a negative command by using the adverb <code>rnL</code> ''not''.

{|

|G || rnL || P || BFr-p || 0 || sD-0

|}

''Don’t go in there!''

===== The Prohibitive Mood =====

Standard Commonthroat

{|

|G || rnL || qdBq-0 || scBq-p || qnlqCb-K

|}

''Don't drink that water; it'll make you sick!''

Moony Dialect

{|

|Gr || qdBq-0 || scBq-p || qnlqCb-K

|}

''Don't drink that water; it'll make you sick!''

==== The Optative Mood ====

The ''optative mood'' expresses hopes, wishes, and desires. It is formed with the particle <code>L</code> /long low weak grunt/ along with the nonauthoritative form of the verb. The most well-known use of the optative is in the ''Holy Greeting''.

{|

|L || rLPq-p || BCq-b || sFsF-qn!

|}

''Light shine upon you, friend!''

==== The Hortative Mood ====

The hortative mood expresses encouragement. It is often confused with the polite imperative in some dialects. It uses the particle <code>Ln</code> /late rising weak grunt/. The hortative can act like an imperative, but implies that the listener would benefit from performing the action. It can be translated as ''you really should…'' or ''Let’s…'' The festive greeting during the winter feast uses the hortative mood.

{|

|Ln || sFsF-qn || rpMr-b || hgq || h || MNq-Mr || rgj-0 || rmn

|}

''Take heart, friend, for the days grow longer.''

==== The Necessitative Mood ====

The ''necessitative mood'' expresses need or requirement. It uses the particle <code>pM</code> /early falling strong grunt/. It differs from the imperative in that the speaker isn’t commanding that an action be done, and it differs from the optative mood in that the speaker may not ''want'' what he’s describing, but he does ''need'' it.

{|

|pM || sG || g || rGhq-Mr || sD-0

''I should go to my home.''

There is a subtle difference between the necessitative mood and the 3rd person imperative. The imperative implies the subject as the agency necessary to carry out the action, but the necessitative does not.

{|

|G || HJq-p || rgj-0

|}

''That tree must grow.*''

The example above sounds ungrammatical to native speakers because the tree has no say in whether it grows or not.  

Commonthroat verbs have no infinitive form. Instead, you serialize verbs to indicate things like the purpose or result of a verb of motion, as well as to indicate aspect.

{|

|rGKq || qJq

|}

''[I’m] coming to swim.''

{|

|lPr || HJq-Mr || rCFq || qcD-g

|}

''[I’m] climbing this tree to eat some fruit.''

== Asking Questions ==

One way to ask questions has already been covered. By inflecting a noun with an interrogative ending, you can ask the listener to identify the noun so inflected.

{|

|rMLcdr-BD || qgJ-0

|}

''Which computer do I use?''

If you want to ask how many of something there are, you inflect the noun Cbg /late low weakening whine, short low weak growl/ ''number, amount'' with the interrogative ending.

{|

|Cb-BD || g || qhq-qN || j || dcr-qN

''How many sires and dams do you have?''

This is not a trivial question, as yinrih can have anywhere from two to twelve natural parents.

You can ask simple yes/no questions by sticking the word <code>mp</code> /short rising strong grunt/ at the beginning of the sentence.

{|

|mp || rMLcdr-Mr || qgJ

|}

''Do I use this computer?''

{|

|qln-DB || 0 || qfdr-0

|}

''How do you stand?''

This is how you ask someone if they’re OK.

When you ask a question with a third person subject, you can mark the verb as nonauthoritative if you think it’s a stupid question.

{|

|mp || BC-K || qMqm-g || rBD-b

''I know you told me before, but I forgot. Do humans walk on their hind feet all the time?''

As with normal yes/no questions, the person answers by repeating the main verb. If he inflects it in the dogmatic mood, that indicates he regards the answer as definitive.

{|

|rBD-K

|}

''Yes, they do walk on their hind feet [all the time].''

If, however, the person answering the question wants you to take his response with a grain of salt, or wants you to trust but verify his answer, he can infelect the verb in the nonauthoritative mood.

{|

|rBD-b

''I think so, but don’t take my word for it.''

=== Rhetorical Questions ===

Just like in English, questions can be rhetorical rather than literal.

{|

|rnL || nq || h || qnlq-g || lNrm-DB || rnP-0

|}

''What healer does not abide among the sick?''

== Indirect Objects ==

Words like ''give'' and ''show'' take an indirect object denoting to whom something is being given or shown. In Commonthroat, the preposition <code>rl</code> /chuff, short low weak growl/ indicates an indirect object. In glosses, this is abbreviated DAT for dative, reflecting a similar construction in Latin and Greek.

{|

|rl || g || sFsF-Mr || 0 || dFr-0 || HJq-Mr

|}

''I showed the tree to my friend.''

== Voice and Coverbs ==

Most sentences are in the ''active voice'', which is when the subject of the sentence does something to the object. In English, we’d say ''The dog bit the man''. The subject (the dog) is doing something (biting) to the object (the man). Here’s a typical Commonthroat sentence in the active voice.

{|

|rBFrrnqsk-Mr || kHr-0 || sPlqBdsk-p

|}

''Fourpaws struck Wetnose.''

What if we wanted to put the focus on the object instead of the subject? We’d use the ''passive voice'', in which the subject of the sentence is being acted upon. In English, you form the passive voice by using the verb ''to be'' plus the past participle of the main verb. You can indicate who’s doing the acting by using the preposition ''by''. ''The man was bitten by the dog''.

{|

|sPlqBdsk-p || rj-0 || rBFrrnqsk-Mr || kHr-0

|}

''Wetnose was struck by Fourpaws.''

Just as in English, you can avoid mentioning who’s performing the action by simply dropping it. ''The man was bitten''. It may not be important who bit the man, or the speaker may wish to avoid saying who bit the man.

In Commonthroat, we can also drop the agent, but we must keep the coverb to indicate the sentence is passive.

{|

|sPlqBdsk-p || rj-0 || kHr-0

|}

''Wetnose was struck.''

=== The Reciprocal Voice ===

Commonthroat uses another coverb, <code>pr</code> /short high strong grunt, chuff/. If there are two different parties acting on one another, one is placed at the head of the sentence as the subject and the other is the object of the coverb <code>pr</code>.

{|

|rBFrrnqsk-Mr || pr-0 || sPlqBdsk-p || kHr-0

|}

''Wetnose and Fourpaws struck one another.''

If you have a plural noun or a noun that otherwise indicates a group such as <code>LMrg</code> ''assembly, moot'', you can simply place that in the subject position and use the coverb without an object as you would with a passive construction whose agent is missing.

{|

|LMr-Mr || pr-0 || rDB-0

|}

''The congregation spoke amongst themselves.''

=== The Reflexive Voice ===

Commonthroat uses another coverb. This time it’s <code>rp</code> /chuff, short high strong grunt/. It’s used in the same manner as the passive voice without an agent.

{|

|rBFrrnqsk-Mr || rp-0 || kHr-0

|}

''Fourpaws struck himself.''

As with the reciprocal voice, you can use a noun referring to more than one person, or to a group. In this case it indicates that each member of the group acted upon himself as an individual.

{|

|LMr-Mr || rp-0 || rDB-0

|}

''The members of the congregation spoke each to himself.''

=== Words that Change Meaning Depending on Voice ===

The ''prospective'' aspect indicates that an action is on the verge of occuring, and uses the verb <code>Lmq</code> /late low strengthening grunt, huff/, which means ''to fix'' or ''to repair''.

{|

|0 || Lmq-0 || lPr-0 || HJq-Mr

|}

''I’m about to climb this tree.''

=== The Completative Aspect ===

The ''completative'' aspect indicates that an action has come to a natural end. It uses the verb <code>bf</code> /short rising strengthening whine/, which means ''to finish'', or ''to complete''.

{|

|0 || bf-0 || rCFq-0

|}

''I’ve finished eating.''

Quick word of warning: you might be tempted to say <code>qhgl</code> ''I’m full'' if you want to politely decline a second helping of food. This is actually a euphemistic way of saying ''I have to use the restroom''. It still means you’re full, '''just not your stomach'''. While we’re on this tangent, don’t say <code>qhgqn</code> ''you’re full'', either. It means ''you’re full of it!''

The completative aspect contrasts with the ''cesative'' aspect. The cesative aspect indicates that an action stopped abruptly, without coming to a natural conclusion. Compare ''I finished talking'' and ''I stopped talking''. The first sentence indicates that you were done, while the second does not. The cesative aspect uses the verb <code>fb</code> /short falling weakening whine/ which means ''to stop'' or ''to halt''

{|

|0 || fb-0 || rCFq-0

|}

''I stopped eating.''

The ''inchoative'' aspect indicates that the action described by a verb is just starting. It uses the verb <code>sg</code> /yip, short low weak growl/ ''to begin''.

{|

|0 || sg-0 || lPr-0 || HJq-p

|}

''I begin climbing the tree.''

The ''superfective'' aspect uses the verb <code>GJq</code> /long rising weak growl, huff/ which means ''to persist'' or ''to keep on''.

{|